Peptides having antimicrobial properties and compositions containing them, notably for the preservation of foodstuffs

ABSTRACT

A peptide comprising one or more intramolecular bonds corresponding to formula (I): 
 
Xaa-Ca1-Xab-Ca2-Xac-Ca3-Xad-Ca4-Xae-Ca5-Ca6-Xaf   (I), 
having antimicrobial properties and compositions containing them, notably for the preservation of foodstuffs.

RELATED APPLICATION

This is a continuation of International Application No. PCT/FR2003/002041, with an international filing date of Jul. 1, 2003 (WO 2004/003006, published Jan. 8, 2004), which is based on French Patent Application No. 02/08207, filed Jul. 1, 2002.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention pertains to the field of the preservation of foodstuffs and the fight against microbial, bacterial and/or fungal infections in human, animals and plants. The invention pertains more particularly to peptides and compositions containing them for preventing and/or treating infections by pathogenic agents such as microbes, bacteria and fungi as well as for the preservation of foodstuffs.

BACKGROUND

It has been reported that the king penguin male, when on land to provide for the final part of incubation, is capable of retaining food in his stomach for two weeks (Gauthier-Clerc et al., 2000). The bird itself fasts and lives off of his body reserves.

To date, no similar situation is known of a higher vertebrate storing food for multiple weeks. The state of preservation of this food is remarkable since its mass and calorific value are not modified (Gauthier-Clerc et al., 2002). These observations on the state of preservation of the food strongly suggest a control of the bacterial flora present in the stomach contents. Such control of the bacterial flora would make it possible to reduce degradation of stored food. This control could be implemented via the production of substances with antimicrobial activity.

In fact, the literature reports the existence of substances with antimicrobial activity in the gastrointestinal tract of vertebrates. A major part of these substances are of a peptide nature, notably magainins, brevinins and buforins in amphibians (Moore et al., 1991; Minn et al., 1998; Wang et al., 1998), lactoferricins and defensins (α, β) in mammals, including humans (Jones and Bevins, 1992; Zhao et al., 1999; O'Neil et al., 2000). In birds, defensins have been found in other parts of the digestive tract notably the tongue, esophagus and intestine (Zhao et al., 2001). Numerous antimicrobial peptides are, moreover, present in the surface epithelia (for review, see Schröder, 1999).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to a peptide including one or more intramolecular bonds corresponding to formula (I): Xaa-Ca1-Xab-Ca2-Xac-Ca3-Xad-Ca4-Xae-Ca5-Ca6-Xaf (I), wherein Xaa represents an —NH₂ group, a peptide residue of 1 to 16 amino acids or -Xaa1-Xaa2-in which Xaa1 represents an —NH₂ group or a peptide residue of 1 to 13 amino acids and Xaa2 represents a peptide residue of 3 amino acids selected from the group consisting of hydrophobic amino acids and apolar amino acids; Xab represents a peptide residue of 1 to 6 amino acids or -Xab1-Xab2-Xab3-Xab4-Xab5-in which Xab1, Xab2, Xab4 and Xab5, when present and which can be identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, negatively charged polar amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, and Xab3 represents -Xab3.1-Xab3.2- in which those of the Xab3.1 and Xab.3.2, when present and which can be identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, negatively charged polar amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and hydrophobic or apolar amino acids; Xac represents a peptide residue comprising 1 to 4 amino acids or -Xac1-Xac2-Xac3-Xac4- in which those of the Xac1, Xac2, Xac3 and Xac4, when present and which can be identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and large noncharged polar amino acids; Xad represents a peptide residue comprising 1 to 9 amino acids or -Xad1-Xad2-Xad3-Xad4-Xad5-Xad6-Xad7-Xad8-Xad9- in which those of Xad1, Xad2, Xad3, Xad4, Xad5, Xad6, Xad7, Xad8 and Xad9, when present and which can be identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and negatively charged polar amino acids; Xae represents a peptide residue comprising 1 to 6 amino acids or -Xae1-Xae2-Xae3-Xae4-Xae5- in which those of Xae1, Xae2, Xae3, Xae4, Xae5, when present and which can be identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and negatively charged polar amino acids; Xaf represents —OH, —CONH₂, a peptide residue of 1 to 14 amino acids or -Xaf1-Xaf2-Xaf3-Xaf4 in which those of the Xaf1, Xaf2, Xaf3 and Xaf4, when present and which can be identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and negatively charged polar amino acids; and Ca1, Ca2, Ca3, Ca4, Ca5 and Ca6, which can be identical or different, represent amino acids at least one of which is bonded to any one of Ca1, Ca2, Ca3, Ca4, Ca5.

This invention also relates to a pharmaceutical composition including a therapeutically effective amount of an active agent including at least one peptide and a carrier.

This invention further relates to a food processing composition including an effective amount of an active agent including at least the peptide and a carrier.

This invention still further relates to an agricultural composition including an effective amount of the active agent including at least the peptide and the carrier.

This invention yet again relates to a polynucleotide that codes for the peptide.

This invention also again relates to a nucleic acid molecule as a vector including at least the polynucleotide.

This invention further again relates to a host including an animal cell, plant cell or a prokaryote and the nucleic acid molecule.

This invention further yet relates to a method of treating bacterial and/or fungal infections in mammals including administering a therapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition to the mammal.

This invention further still relates to a method of preventing bacterial and/or fungal infections in mammals including administering a therapeutically effective amount of the composition to the mammal.

This invention again further relates to a method of treating bacterial and/or fungal infections in plants including administering a therapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition to a plant.

Finally, this invention relates to a method of preventing bacterial and/or fungal infections in plants including administering a therapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition to the plant.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Other advantages and characteristics of the invention will become apparent from the examples below pertaining to the demonstration, isolation and characterization of antimicrobial peptides from samples of the stomach contents of male king penguins as well as the synthetic form of spheniscin-2, its spectrum of antimicrobial activity and the study of the effect of pH on its functionality. These examples will make reference to the attached figures and tables in which:

FIG. 1 is a graph showing the evolution of the gastric pH and the stomach temperature in two male king penguins during the first week of their incubation fast. The stomach content was preserved in one case (A) and digested in the other case (B).

FIG. 2 is a graph showing the evolution of the gastric motility and the stomach temperature in two male king penguins during the first week of their incubation fast. The stomach content was preserved in one case (A) and digested in the other case (B).

FIG. 3 is a graph showing the evolution of the antimicrobial activities in the stomach content of fasting king penguins incubating their eggs. The antimicrobial activities were testing by depositing fractions stemming from a first purification by chromatography of the cationic peptides. Three strains of microorganisms, representatives of Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli), Gram-positive bacteria (Micrococcus luteus) and filamentous fungi (Neurospora crassa) were used. The antimicrobial activity corresponds to a diminishment in or absence of growth of the microorganisms for a tested fraction. The percentage indicated for the antimicrobial activities corresponds to the proportion of fraction having these activities. Two groups of king penguins were constituted depending on whether the birds preserved (dark histograms at left) or digested (lighter histograms at right) their stomach contents during the fast. Letters: difference over the course of the fast for the same group; P<0.05. Star: differences for the same stage of fasting between the groups; P<0.05.

FIG. 4 is a graph showing the evolution of the total (solid histograms) or partial (hatched histograms) antimicrobial activities in the fasting male king penguins incubating their eggs. The antimicrobial activities were tested by depositing fractions stemming from a first purification by chromatography of the cationic peptides. Three strains of microorganisms, representatives of Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli), Gram-positive bacteria (Micrococcus luteus) and filamentous fungi (Neurospora crassa) were used. The antimicrobial activity was characterized as total if there was no growth of microorganisms for a tested fraction. If the growth was only slowed down, the inhibition was partial. The percentage indicated for the antimicrobial activities, whether total or partial, corresponds to the proportion of fractions having these activities. Two groups of king penguins were constituted based on whether the birds preserved (histograms at left) or digested (histograms at right) their stomach contents during the fast.

FIG. 5 is a graph showing the evolution of the antimicrobial activities against three types of microorganisms in the stomach contents of fasting king penguins incubating their eggs (see FIG. 4 for legends).

FIG. 6 is a graph showing the quantitative evolution of the spheniscins over the course of the fast in the stomach contents of fasting king penguins incubating their eggs. Two groups of king penguins were constituted based on whether the birds preserved (black circles and solid lines) or digested (white circles and large dashes) their stomach contents during the fast. The individual values (A) and the mean values±SDM (B) are shown. In (A) the values for an individual having preserved its stomach content between the beginning and the middle of the fast (black squares) then having digested it between the middle and the end of the fast (white squares) are also shown (small dashes).

FIG. 7 is a graph showing the mass spectrum of the spheniscins in native form (A) and after reduction and pyridylethylation with the cysteine residues (B).

FIG. 8 is a table showing the β-defensins implicated in the epithelial immune response in vertebrates. L=tongue; T=trachea; MB=buccal mucosa; GS=salivary glands; P=skin; MP=pulmonary mucosa; GI=gastrointestinal tract; E=stomach; I=intestine; O=esophagus; TG=genital tract. References: (1) Zhao et al., 2001; (2) Harder et al., 1997; (3) Hiratsuka et al., 1998; (4) Mathews et al., 1999; (5) Harder et al., 2001; (6) Garcia et al., 2001a; (7) Garcia et al., 2001b; (8) Bals et al., 2001; (9) Duits et al., 2000; (10) Duits et al., site AMSDb; (11) Diamond et al., 1993; (12) Schonwetter et al., 1995; (13) Tarver et al., 1998; (14) Bals et al., 1998; (15) Huttner et al., 1997; (16) Morrison et al., 1999; (17) Bals et al., 1999; (18) Jia et al., 2000; (19) Yamaguchi et al., 2001; (20) Conejo-Garcia et al., site AMSDb; (21) Zhao et al., 1999; (22) Huttner et al., 1998; (23) Zhang et al., 1998.

FIG. 9 shows the deleterious effect of spheniscin-2 on the growth of Aspergillus fumigatus, a pathogenic filamentous fungus (observation with electronic microscope (Philips XL30 LaB6)). (FIG. 9A) Control growth: the aspergillar heads terminated by the spores are clearly visible (X 400). (FIG. 9B) Incubation with 6 μM of spheniscin-2 leads to the disappearance of the aspergillar heads. The effect of spheniscin-2 on A. fumigatus is consequently not of the direct fungicidal type on the spores but is manifested by a halt of growth by inhibition of the reproduction of the fungus because there is no longer formation of aspergillar heads, structures implicated in the reproduction/proliferation process of this fungus.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

We have now discovered the presence of antimicrobial peptides in the stomach content of king penguins and the implication of these peptides with antimicrobial activity in the phenomenon of preservation of the alimentary bolus during incubation fasting in the king penguin male. We thereby discovered new peptides which are designated below as “spheniscins” after the family of the Spheniscidae to which the king penguin belongs.

The invention thus provides a purified peptide from the stomach contents of king penguins or an analogue of that peptide provided that the analogue has antibacterial activity in one of the tests described herein. An analogue has a sequence modified by addition, suppression or replacement of at least one amino acid residue of the sequence of the peptide.

The invention pertains most particularly to a peptide comprising one or more intramolecular bonds corresponding to the sequence of formula (I) below represented in SEQ ID No. 1: Xaa-Ca1-Xab-Ca2-Xac-Ca3-Xad-Ca4-Xae-Ca5-Ca6-Xaf   (I) in which:

-   -   Xaa represents an —NH₂ group or a peptide residue of 1 to 16         amino acids, preferably 4 amino acids; Xaa advantageously         corresponds to the following formula: -Xaa1-Xaa2- (SEQ ID No. 2)         in which Xaa1 represents an —NH₂ group or a peptide residue of 1         to 13 amino acids and Xaa2 represents a peptide residue of 3         amino acids selected from among the hydrophobic or apolar amino         acids;     -   -Xab represents a peptide residue of 1 to 6 amino acids,         preferably 6 amino acids; Xab advantageously corresponds to the         following formula: -Xab1-Xab2-Xab3-Xab4-Xab5- (SEQ ID No. 3) in         which those of the Xab1, Xab2, Xab4 and Xab5, which can be         identical or different, are selected from among the group         comprising the basic amino acids, the negatively charged polar         amino acids, the small noncharged polar amino acids, the large         noncharged polar amino acids and the hydrophobic or apolar amino         acids, and Xab3 represents a peptide residue corresponding to         the following formula: -Xab3.1-Xab3.2- (SEQ ID No. 4) in which         those of the Xab3.1 and Xab.3, which can be identical or         different, are selected from among the group comprising the         basic amino acids, the negatively charged polar amino acids, the         small noncharged polar amino acids, the large noncharged polar         amino acids and the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids;     -   Xac represents a peptide residue comprising 1 to 4 amino acids,         preferably 4 amino acids; Xac advantageously corresponds to the         following formula: -Xac1-Xac2-Xac3-Xac4- (SEQ ID No. 5) in which         those of the Xac1, Xac2, Xac3 and Xac4, which can be identical         or different, are selected from among the group comprising the         basic amino acids, the small noncharged polar amino acids, the         hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and the large noncharged polar         amino acids;     -   Xad represents a peptide residue comprising 1 to 9 amino acids,         preferably 9 amino acids; Xad advantageously responds to the         following sequence:         -Xad1-Xad2-Xad3-Xad4-Xad5-Xad6-Xad7-Xad8-Xad9- (SEQ ID No. 6) in         which those of the Xad1, Xad2, Xad3, Xad4, Xad5, Xad6, Xad7,         Xad8 and Xad9, which can be identical or different, are selected         from among the group comprising the basic amino acids, the small         noncharged polar amino acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino         acids, the large noncharged polar amino acids and the negatively         charged polar amino acids;     -   Xae represents a peptide residue comprising 1 to 6 amino acids,         preferably 5 amino acids; Xae advantageously corresponds to the         following sequence: -Xae1-Xae2-Xae3-Xae4-Xae5- (SEQ ID No. 7) in         which those of the Xae1, Xae2, Xae3, Xae4, Xae5, which can be         identical or different, are selected from among the group         comprising the basic amino acids, the small noncharged polar         amino acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, the large         noncharged polar amino acids and the negatively charged polar         amino acids;     -   Xaf represents an —OH or —CONH₂ group or a peptide residue of 1         to 14 amino acids, preferably 4 amino acids; Xaf advantageously         corresponds to the following sequence: -Xaf1-Xaf2-Xaf3-Xaf4-         (SEQ ID No. 8) in which those of the Xaf1, Xaf2, Xaf3 and Xaf4,         which can be identical or different, are selected from among the         group comprising the basic amino acids, the small noncharged         polar amino acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, the         large noncharged polar amino acids and the negatively charged         polar amino acids;     -   Ca1, Ca2, Ca3, Ca4, Ca5 and Ca6, which can be identical or         different, represent amino acids at least one of which is bonded         to any one of the others Ca1, Ca2, Ca3, Ca4, Ca5 and Ca6; Ca1,         Ca2, Ca3, Ca4, Ca5 and Ca6 are advantageously sulfur-containing         amino acids of the cysteine type, preferably cysteines.

The invention pertains most particularly to the peptides of formula (I) having one or more of the following characteristics:

-   -   Xaa1 is an amino acid selected from among the small noncharged         polar amino acids, preferably serine;     -   Xaa2 is Phe-Gly-Leu;     -   Ca1 and Ca5 are linked by covalence;     -   Xab1 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and the large         noncharged polar amino acids; Xab1 preferably is a basic amino         acid, most preferably arginine (Arg);     -   Xab2 is selected from among the group comprising the hydrophobic         or apolar amino acids, the small noncharged polar amino acids,         the basic amino acids and the large noncharged polar amino         acids; Xab2 is preferably a hydrophobic or apolar amino acid,         most preferably leucine (Leu);     -   Xab3.2 is selected from among the group containing the basic         amino acids, the small noncharged polar amino acids and the         hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, most preferably arginine         (Arg);     -   Xab4 is selected from among the group comprising the hydrophobic         or apolar amino acids, most preferably Xab4 is glycine (Gly);     -   Xab5 is selected from among the group comprising the hydrophobic         or apolar amino acids, the large noncharged polar amino acids,         the basic amino acids, the negatively charged polar amino acids         and the small noncharged polar amino acids; Xab5 is preferably a         hydrophobic or apolar amino acid, most preferably phenylalanine         (Phe);     -   Ca2 and Ca4 are linked by covalence;     -   Xac1 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and the large         noncharged polar amino acids; Xac1 is preferably a hydrophobic         or apolar amino acid, most preferably alanine (Ala);     -   Xac2 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and the large         noncharged polar amino acids; Xac2 is preferably a basic amino         acid, most preferably arginine (Arg) or histidine (His);     -   Xac3 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, the small         noncharged polar amino acids and the large noncharged polar         amino acids; Xax3 is preferably a hydrophobic or apolar amino         acid, most preferably glycine (Gly);     -   Xac4 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and the small         noncharged polar amino acids; Xac4 is preferably a basic amino         acid, most preferably arginine (Arg);     -   Ca3 and Ca6 are linked by covalence;     -   Xad1 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and the large         noncharged polar amino acids; Xad1 is preferably a basic amino         acid, most preferably arginine (Arg);     -   Xad2 is selected from among the group comprising the hydrophobic         or apolar amino acids, the small noncharged polar amino acids         and the basic amino acids; Xad2 is preferably a hydrophobic or         apolar amino acid, most preferably phenylalanine (Phe);     -   Xad3 is selected from among the group comprising the hydrophobic         or apolar amino acids, the small noncharged polar amino acids,         the basic amino acids and the large noncharged polar amino         acids; Xad3 is preferably a hydrophobic or apolar amino acid,         preferably proline or hydroxyproline, most preferably proline         (Pro);     -   Xad4 is selected from among the group comprising the hydrophobic         or apolar amino acids, the small noncharged polar amino acids,         the basic amino acids, the large noncharged polar amino acids         and the negatively charged polar amino acids; Xad4 is preferably         a small noncharged polar amino acid, most preferably serine         (Ser);     -   Xad5 is selected from among the group comprising the hydrophobic         or apolar amino acids, the basic amino acids and the negatively         charged polar amino acids; Xad5 is preferably a hydrophobic or         apolar amino acid, most preferably isoleucine (Ile);     -   Xad6 is selected from among the group comprising the hydrophobic         or apolar amino acids, the basic amino acids and the large         noncharged polar amino acids; Xad6 is preferably a hydrophobic         or apolar amino acid, preferably proline or hydroxyproline, most         preferably proline (Pro);     -   Xad7 is selected from among the group comprising the hydrophobic         or apolar amino acids and the large noncharged polar amino         acids; Xad7 is preferably a hydrophobic or apolar amino acid,         most preferably isoleucine (Ile);     -   Xad8 is selected from among the group comprising the hydrophobic         or apolar amino acids; Xad8 is preferably glycine (Gly);     -   Xad9 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the large noncharged polar amino acids and the small         noncharged polar amino acids; Xad9 is preferably a basic amino         acid, most preferably arginine (Arg);     -   Xae1 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, the large         noncharged polar amino acids and the small noncharged polar         amino acids; Xae1 is preferably a small noncharged polar amino         acid, most preferably serine (Ser);     -   Xae2 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, the large         noncharged polar amino acids and the small noncharged polar         amino acids; Xae2 is preferably a basic amino acid, most         preferably arginine (Arg);     -   Xae3 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, the large         noncharged polar amino acids, the small noncharged polar amino         acids and the negatively charged polar amino acids; Xae3 is         preferably a hydrophobic or apolar amino acid, most preferably         phenylalanine (Phe);     -   Xae4 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, the large         noncharged polar amino acids and the small noncharged polar         amino acids; Xae4 is preferably a hydrophobic or apolar amino         acid, most preferably valine (Val);     -   Xae5 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, the large         noncharged polar amino acids and the small noncharged polar         amino acids; Xae5 is preferably a large noncharged polar amino         acid, most preferably glutamine (Gln);     -   Xaf1 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids and the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids; Xae5 is         preferably a basic amino acid, most preferably arginine (Arg);     -   Xaf2 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and the small         noncharged polar amino acids; Xaf2 is preferably a basic amino         acid, most preferably arginine (Arg);     -   Xaf3 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids, the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and the large         noncharged polar amino acids; Xaf3 is preferably a hydrophobic         or apolar amino acid, most preferably valine (Val);     -   Xaf4 is selected from among the group comprising the basic amino         acids and the hydrophobic or apolar amino acids; Xaf4 is         preferably a hydrophobic or apolar amino acid, most preferably         tryptophan (Trp).

The particular meanings of the following terms are:

-   -   basic amino acids: lysine (Lys), arginine (Arg), histidine (His)         or homoarginine;     -   negatively charged polar amino acids: aspartic acid (Asp) or         aspartate or glutamic acid (Glu) or glutamate;     -   small noncharged polar amino acids: serine (Ser) or threonine         (Thr);     -   large noncharged polar amino acids: asparagine (Asn), glutamine         (Gln) or methionine (Met);     -   hydrophobic or apolar amino acids: isoleucine (Ile), leucine         (Leu), phenylalanine (Phe), tryptophan (Trp), tyrosine (Tyr),         valine (Val), alanine (Ala), glycine (Gly), proline (Pro) or         hydroxyproline.

The invention pertains specifically to a peptide of formula (I) having three intramolecular bonds, more particularly, three disulfide bridges and, among these, the invention pertains to a peptide of formula (II) below:

in which Xaa, Ca1, Xab, Ca2, Xac, Ca3, Xad, Ca4, Xae, Ca5, Ca6 and Xaf have the same meanings as in formula (I).

The invention pertains particularly to the peptides of formula (II) in which: Xac is: Xac1-His-Xac3 (SEQ ID No. 9) or Xac1-Arg-Xac3; (SEQ ID No. 10) Xad is: Xad1-Pro-Xad3; (SEQ ID No. 11) Xae is: Xae1-Gln-Xae3; (SEQ ID No. 12) Xaf is: Xaf1-Val-Xaf3 (SEQ ID No. 13) in which Xac, Xac1, Xac3, Xad, Xad1, Xad3, Xae, Xae1, Xae3, Xaf, Xaf1 and Xaf3 have the same meanings as in formula (I).

The following can be cited as particular non-limiting examples of peptides of formula (I) or (II):

-   -   spheniscin-1, the primary sequence of which is the following:         -   SFGLCRLRRGFCAHGRCRFPSIPIGRCSRFVQCCRRVW (SEQ ID No. 14),     -   spheniscin-2, the primary sequence of which is the following:         -   SFGLCRLRRGFCARGRCRFPSIPIGRCSRFVQCCRRVW (SEQ ID No. 15).

The amino acids are generally represented by their single letter code but they can also be represented by their three-letter code according to the nomenclature below: A Ala Alanine C Cys Cysteine D Asp Aspartic acid E Glu Glutamic acid F Phe Phenylalanine G Gly Glycine H His Histidine I Ile Isoleucine K Lys Lysine L Leu Leucine M Met Methionine N Asn Asparagine P Pro Proline Q Gln Glutamine R Arg Arginine S Ser Serine T Thr Threonine V Val Valine W Trp Tryptophan Y Tyr Tyrosine

The peptides of the invention can have at the level of certain amino acids natural or chemical post-translational modifications, e.g., the NH₂-terminal residue can have, e.g., an acylation, or the C-terminal residue can have a natural or chemical post-translational modification, e.g., an amidation, an oxidation or an esterification. The invention thus also pertains to derivatives of peptides of formulas (I) or (II) such as those in which one or more amino acids are amino acids of D conformation. The invention also relates to retro-peptides and retro-inverso-peptides, provided that they preserve antimicrobial activity.

The invention also provides a method of using the peptides in the food-processing field for protecting foodstuffs against microbes (bacteria and fungi). The invention further provides a method of using the peptides in humans, animals or plants to prevent and/or treat microbial, bacterial and/or fungal infection.

The invention thus pertains to a pharmaceutical, agricultural or food processing composition comprising as an active agent at least one peptide as defined above, advantageously combined in the composition with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable vehicles, diluents, excipients, carriers or the like.

The vehicles, diluents, carriers and excipients are selected as a function of the type of application of the composition, e.g., whether pharmaceutical, agricultural or food processing.

Thus, the invention also provides a peptide as defined above for a pharmaceutical, agricultural or food-processing preparation that is antibacterial and/or antifungal. The compositions of the invention may be used with both preventive and curative intent.

For use relative to the preservation of foodstuffs, the peptides of the invention and the compositions containing them can be made available in powder or granulate form. They can be fixed on the supports containing the foodstuffs or be incorporated directly in the foodstuffs notably in the form of microorganisms, such as yeasts, producing the peptides.

The administration of the pharmaceutical composition according to the invention can be implemented by any of the modes of administration accepted for therapeutic, agricultural or food-processing agents. For the pharmaceutical composition in humans or animals, systemic, topical or central administration can be cited. Oral administration can be implemented by means of tablets, gel capsules, soft capsules, including delayed or extended release formulations, pills, powders, granules, elixirs, tinctures, suspensions, syrups, emulsions and the like. Parenteral administration of antibacterial and/or antifungal compounds is generally performed by intramuscular or intravenous injection by perfusion. Injectable compositions can be prepared in conventional forms, either in suspension or liquid solution or in a solid form suitable for as needed dissolution in a suitable liquid, including formulations with delayed or prolonged release as well as the incorporation of peptides in biodegradable microparticles of lipidic formulation such as liposomes. Other conventional topical preparations include creams, unguents, lotions, gels, aerosol sprays and the like.

Use of the peptides with essentially preventive intent comprises applying the peptides to hygiene products, bandages and animal litter.

As a function of the mode of administration, the compounds can be in solid, semisolid or liquid form. For solid compositions such as tablets, pills, powders or granules in the free state or incorporated in gel capsules or biodegradable microparticles of lipidic formulation, such as liposomes, the active agent can be combined with diluents, lubricants, binders, absorbents, colorants, flavoring agents and sweeteners.

The compositions according to the invention can also contain other substances having therapeutic properties.

The peptides of the invention can be administered in the form of a single daily dose or the total daily dosage can be administered in two, three or four doses per day.

The invention includes not only the peptides described above but also the use of the polynucleotide sequences coding these peptides for transforming hosts, and notably animal or plant cells or prokaryotes. These sequences are used in accordance with the genetic engineering techniques described in the literature. The invention consequently also provides a polynucleotide coding a peptide described above, a nucleic acid molecule, DNA or RNA, as a vector, comprising the polynucleotide, and a host, e.g., an animal or plant cell or prokaryote comprising the nucleic acid molecule as well as the compositions—notably pharmaceutical compositions—containing them.

The invention also pertains to agricultural applications of the previously described peptides to make plants resistant to phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi and thereby reduce the use of chemical pesticides that are toxic for the environment. The direct application on the plant of an effective amount of antibacterial and/or antifungal peptides or of a composition containing them represents a first form of implementation of the agricultural application.

A second form of implementation of this application is based on transgenic techniques comprising incorporating in a stable manner in the DNA of a plant cell a polynucleotide sequence coding for one or more of the above peptides. The plant cells transformed in this manner enable regeneration of a plant transmitting the character of resistance to bacterial and/or fungal infections to its descendents. As examples of plants, the following can be cited: rice, corn, rape, beets, wheat, tobacco, tomatoes, potatoes and the like.

EXAMPLE 1 Demonstration of Antimicrobial Peptides in the Stomach Contents of King Penguins During Incubation Fasting

Like most pelagic birds, king penguins feed themselves solely in the sea. They alternate periods at sea where they eat with fasting periods on land for reproduction and molting. The duration of the alimentary voyages at sea is, however, quite variable both in terms of duration and distance traveled due to variability both in the distance at which their prey is to be found, but also the availability of this prey within the zone of alimentary prospecting. The result is that the duration of these alimentary voyages can sometimes be doubled (Bost et al., 1997).

During the reproduction period, a male-female pair take turns providing for the incubation of the single egg (54 days), with the male normally providing for the final incubation period. Given the variability of the duration of the voyages at sea, there exists some uncertainty regarding the sex of the bird who will be on the egg at the moment of hatching. In the majority of cases, the female returns in time for hatching, but her return can be delayed by up to nine days (Gauthier-Clerc et al., 2000) whereas the endogenous reserves of the newborn chick can only provide for two or three days of self-sufficiency.

The male king penguin has developed a remarkable adaptation to ensure the survival of the chick in the case that the female is delayed. It has been confirmed that the male king penguin is capable while on land of providing for the last part of incubation to retain the food in his stomach for more than two weeks (Gauthier-Clerc et al., 2000). The male itself fasts and lives on his body reserves. The state of preservation of this food is remarkable since neither its mass nor its calorific value changes (Gauthier-Clerc et al., 2002).

During the preservation of this food, the stomach temperature is maintained at a high value, an average of 38° C., and the gastric pH remains between 5 and 6 (FIG. 1). The gastric motility is very greatly diminished in the case of preservation of the food compared to that which is seen in a bird that digests its stomach content during the incubation period (FIG. 2). Although these different parameters are favorable for the degradation of the food by the bacteria present in the stomach content, the qualitative and quantitative analysis of this food has shown that this is not the case at all.

A bacteriological study showed that there is a very high proportion of viable bacteria in the stomach contents of penguins which are effectively preserved during the fast, but they apparently are unable to develop. These bacteria in fact have the morphological characteristics of bacteria placed under conditions of environmental stress. The bacteria that can be cultured are principally the environmental bacteria such as the Corynebacterium, Moraxella, Staphylococcus, Micrococcus and Streptococcus spp. as well as bacteria that would seem to stem from the penguins' prey such as Clostridium spp. In contrast, multiple bacteria of the Pseudomonas and Vibrio spp. type present in the marine environment (MacCormack & Fraile, 1990) were not detected. Similarly, no enteric bacteria were demonstrated even though such bacteria have been observed in king penguins (Soucek and Mushin, 1970). Thus, the results of the analysis of the bacterial flora also are indicative of a protection of the stored food against degradation by bacteria. A control of the bacterial flora by antimicrobial substances produced by the birds could explain this preservation.

The presence of antimicrobial peptides was investigated in the stomach contents of king penguins during incubation fasting. There was thus performed:

-   -   an individual monitoring during fasting of the antimicrobial         peptides present in the stomach contents. Multiple samples were         collected for the same individual during fasting.     -   a comparison between two groups of birds depending on whether         they preserved (“preservation” group) or digested (“digestion”         group) their stomach contents during fasting (see example 2.1         for the detailed protocol).

Four strains of test microorganisms were selected for screening for the presence of antimicrobial peptides in the stomach content extracts: Micrococcus luteus (Gram positive), Escherichia coli SBS 363 (Gram negative), Neurospora crassa (filamentous fungus) and the yeast Candida albicans. These strains were selected because of their high sensitivity to antimicrobial peptides (see examples 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 for the details of the protocol). We shall restrict our description to the activities directed against the bacterial strains E. coli, M. luteus and N. crassa.

Three major results emerge:

-   -   there exist molecules with antimicrobial activity in the stomach         content samples from the male king penguins.     -   these antimicrobial activities are expressed differently in the         individuals of the “preservation” group compared to the         individuals of the “digestion” group. These differences are at         both the quantitative and the qualitative levels.

At the quantitative level:

-   -   the microorganism inhibitory activities were higher in the         “preservation” group compared to the “digestion” group at the         beginning and the middle of fasting (FIG. 3). The distinction         between the total and partial inhibitory activities shows that         the difference between the two groups is linked to a larger         proportion of total inhibitory activities in the “preservation”         group compared to the “digestion” group—with this being true         during the entire duration of fasting (FIG. 4).     -   the inhibitory activities (total and partial) were maintained         during the entirety of fasting in the “preservation” group. A         very strong decrease in the middle of fasting was seen in the         “digestion” group.

At the qualitative level (FIG. 5):

-   -   for all three types of microorganisms tested, the inhibitory         activities were higher in the “preservation” group compared to         the “digestion” group—with this being true during the entire         duration of fasting. These activities were essentially directed         against the Gram-positive bacterium tested (M. luteus).     -   with one exception, only the samples from the individuals of the         “preservation” group had inhibitory activities against the         Gram-negative bacterium tested (E. coli).

In conclusion, these results strongly support the implication of substances with antimicrobial activity in the phenomenon of preservation of the food bolus during incubation fasting of the male king penguin.

EXAMPLE 2 Isolation and Characterization of Antimicrobial Peptides from the Stomach Content Samples of Male King Penguins

2.1 Birds and Collection of Stomach Contents

All of the stomach content samples were collected from male king penguins in their natural environment. The penguin colony was located on Possession Island (46°25′S-51°45′ E) in the Crozet Island Archipelago. The samples were collected during the incubation period using a gastric probe. This study, performed in a protected zone and on a protected species, received the authorization of the French, Australian and Antarctic Territories (decision no. 2000-59 of Oct. 16, 2000) and the authorization of the Ministry of National Development and the Environment (authorization 00/240/AUT of Aug. 30, 2000).

a) Birds: The king penguin males were identified by means of a plastic ring placed temporarily on the flipper at the beginning of the incubation period just after the egg was laid and the passage of the egg between the female and the male.

The samplings of the stomach contents were performed during the last period of the incubation provided by the male. In order to perform an individual monitoring of the stomach contents, the samples were collected for each bird at three different stages of fasting: beginning, middle of fasting (approximately 7 days) and end of fasting. For the samplings at the beginning and the middle of fasting, the collection was performed while the bird was on its egg. For the final fasting stage, the male was captured just after he was relieved by the female outside of the colony.

The samples were collected in a calm situation outside of the colony. In order to limit the stress on the bird, it was placed in darkness by means of a hood. Similarly the egg was temporarily replaced by a heated plaster egg. The natural egg was placed in an incubator during sample collection. After the sample was collected, the bird was placed at the exact site of his capture. All of the birds studied brought the incubation to term.

Two groups of birds were formed based on whether they preserved (“preservation” group, n=3) or digested (“digestion” group, n=3) their stomach contents during incubation fasting.

b) Collection of the samples and storage: The stomach content samples were collected by a nondestructive, noninvasive method of intubation and aspiration. In order to obtain a homogeneous sampling, a quantity greater than required was collected in multiple steps, then immediately homogenized in a container kept in the freezer. It was only after this homogenization that sampling was performed. The samples were stored at −80° C. During their shipment back to the French mainland, the samples were kept frozen successively at −80° C. then in dry ice according to the transport technique (ship then airplane) prior to being again placed at −80° C. until their analysis with a strict respect of the cold chain.

2.2 Extraction of the Hydrophobic Cationic Peptides and Prepurification

Extraction of the hydrophobic cationic peptides was performed on the frozen stomach content samples. The stomach content was ground using an ultraturax then an ultrasound probe in an extraction medium composed of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA, 0.2%) containing aprotinin (22.5 μg/ml final concentration) as protease inhibitor. The samples were maintained in the cold state in the freezer during the entire grinding step. The sample volume/extraction medium volume ratio was selected to be 1/10 at the end of grinding. The peptides were extracted at pH 2.5-3 under agitation overnight in a cold chamber. After centrifugation (10,000 rpm for 10 minutes at 6° C.), the supernatant was prepurified by extraction in solid phase on Sep-Pak C₁₈ Vac reversed phase cartridges (5 g of phase, Waters™). The cartridge was solvated with methanol and equilibrated with acidified water (0.05% TFA). The elution of the peptides/polypeptides and proteins was performed with an 80% solution of acetonitrile in acidified water. The eluted fraction was lyophilized prior to purification by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

2.3 Purification of the Cationic Peptides

a) Step 1. Purification on Semi-Preparative Column

The 80% Sep-Pak fraction was subjected to chromatography on reversed phase support on a semi-preparative Aquapore RP-300 C₁₈ column (250×7 mm, Brownlee™), equilibrated with a 2% solution of acetonitrile in acidified water. The fractions were separated using a linear gradient of 2% to 72% of acetonitrile in acidified water in 70 minutes with a flow rate of 1.3 ml/minute.

This purification step was performed under controlled temperature (20-22° C.) on a Beckman Gold HPLC system equipped with a Beckman 168 photoarray detector. The molecules eluted from the column were detected by their absorbance at 225 nm.

The different fractions were collected manually, dried under vacuum (Speed-Vac, Savant) and reconstituted in 150 μl of ultrapure water (Millipore™) that had previously been filtered (Millipore™), prior to analysis of the antimicrobial activity.

b) Step 2. Purification on Analytic Column

Purification of the molecules with antimicrobial activity (total activity directed against the two strains of bacteria and the strain of filamentous fungi) was performed from a fraction stemming from the stomach content collected from a bird belonging to the “preservation” group at the end of fasting.

The second purification step was performed on an Aquapore OD-300 analytic column (220×4.6 mm, Brownlee™). The elution was performed by means of a biphasic acetonitrile gradient in acidified water from 2 to 23% in 10 minutes then from 23 to 38% in 45 minutes with a flow rate of 0.8 ml/minute. The different fractions were collected manually, dried under vacuum (Speed-Vac, Savant) and reconstituted in 70 μl of MilliQ water (Millipore™). In order to limit the use of the active product for the biological tests, only the Gram-negative strain E. coli was tested. The inactive fractions were then tested on N. crassa. No activity was detected, suggesting that the activity directed against the filamentous fungus N. crassa, recorded during the preceding purification, is clearly linked to the fraction having activity directed against the Gram-negative bacterium E. coli.

c) Step 3. Final Purification Phase on Analytic Column

The third purification step was performed on the same analytic column as in step 3 using as elution conditions a biphasic acetonitrile gradient in acidified water from 2 to 20% in 10 minutes and from 20 to 30% in 50 minutes with a flow rate of 0.8 ml/minute. The fractions were collected, dried under vacuum, taken up in 40 μl of water and analyzed for their antibacterial activity against E. coli.

These last two purification steps were performed under controlled temperature on a HPLC biocompatible system (all PEEK Waters, Waters model 626) linked to a variable absorbance detector (Waters 486). The molecules eluted from the column were detected by their absorbance at 225 nm and the antimicrobial activity was measured according to the procedure described in example 2.4 below.

2.4 Detection of Antimicrobial Activities

Antimicrobial activity was measured on four strains of microorganisms: Micrococcus luteus (Gram positive; collection of the Pasteur Institute, Paris), Escherichia coli SBS 363 (Gram negative; donated by M. Boquet of the Center for Nuclear Studies of Saclay), Neurospora crassa (filamentous fungus; fungus collection of the Clause Society, Paris) and Candida albicans (yeast; donated by Dr. Koenig, Hôpital Civil, Strasbourg). These four strains were selected from public or private collections because of their known sensitivity to natural antimicrobial peptides.

The bacteria to be tested were suspended in a suitable nutritive medium of the “poor broth” type corresponding to a solution of bactotryptone at 10 g/l with the addition of NaCl 5 g/l in ultrapure water.

The spores of the fungus N. crassa to be tested were suspended in a suitable culture medium of the “potato infusion—glucose” type. Preference was given to the use of 12 g of potato dextrose broth medium (1/2 PDB, Difco) per 1 liter of demineralized water. Two antibiotics were added to the culture medium: cefotaxime (final concentration at 100 μg/ml) and tetracycline (final concentration at 10 μg/ml).

The yeast strain C. albicans to be tested was incubated in a suitable culture medium of the “Sabouraud” type.

Antimicrobial activities were detected by a growth inhibition test in microtitration plates (Hétru and Bulet, 1997). One deposited 10 ml of each fraction collected in mictrotitration plates in the presence of 90 μl of culture medium containing the microorganisms (at a final concentration equivalent to 1 mDO at 600 nm).

For the bacteria and the yeast, incubation was performed at 30° C. for 12-24 h under agitation. The growth of the microorganisms was measured by monitoring the absorbance at 600 nm by means of a spectrophotometer reader of microtitration plates.

For the filamentous fungi, the incubation was performed at 37° C. in a humid atmosphere for 48 hours. The fungal growth was observed with a photon microscope after 24 h and quantified after 48 h by measurement of the absorbance at 600 nm by means of a spectrophotometer reader of microtitration plates.

2.5 Structural Characterization of the Spheniscins

2.5.1 Analysis by Mass Spectrometry

The purity and determination of the molecular mass of the bioactive molecules was performed by mass spectrometer using the technique called measurement of the time of flight after matrix-assisted laser ionization desorption (MALDI-TOF technique). The material used was a Brucker BIFLEX™ III mass spectrometer (Bremen, Germany) equipped with a SCOUT™ high resolution optic and a reflectron. This instrument has a maximum acceleration potential of 20 kV and can be used either in linear mode or in reflectron mode. Ionization was performed with a 337-nm beam emitted by a nitrogen laser at a frequency of 3 Hz. The mass spectra were calibrated externally with a standard mixture of drosophila peptides, i.e., drosocin, metchnikowin and drosomycin of known molecular mass respectively of 2199.5 Da, 3046.4 Da and 4890.5 Da (Bullet, 1999).

The sample to be analyzed was prepared according to the sandwich technique (Kussmann et al., 1997) displayed as follows: 0.5 μl of sample was deposited on a thin layer of α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid crystals (4-HCCA, Sigma) obtained by rapid evaporation of a saturated solution in acetone. The entire entity was covered with 0.5 μl of 4-HCCA matrix at saturation in a 50% solution of acetonitrile in water. After drying under a light vacuum, the sample was washed with 1.5 μl of TFA 0.1% before being dried again and introduced into the mass spectrometer.

The mass spectrum obtained for the fraction isolated in step 3 of example 2.3 above is presented in FIG. 7A. This fraction contained two molecules of molecular mass in MH⁺ at 4482.84 and 4501.67. The following step was to verify the presence of cysteine residues in the isolated antimicrobial molecules and possibly to modify these cysteine residues to promote the identification of the sequence during the peptide sequencing by Edman's degradation.

2.5.2 Verification of the Presence of Cysteine Residues and Determination of Their Number: Reduction and S-Pyridylethylation

a) Step 1: Chemical Treatment

The presence of cysteine residues was determined after reduction and S-pyridylethylation. An aliquot fraction of the peptides purified in step 3 of example 2.3 was subjected to a chemical reduction step with 4 μl of dithiothreitol (final concentration 2.2 M) in 40 μl of Tris/HCl 0.5 M buffer, pH 8.3 containing 2 mM of EDTA and 6 M of guanidium chloride. The reaction medium was placed under a nitrogen atmosphere. After 60 minutes of incubation in the dark, 2 μl of 4-vinyl pyridine (alkylating agent) was added to the reaction. The reaction medium was placed under a nitrogen atmosphere and incubated for 10 minutes at 45° C. in the dark. The reaction was stopped by acidification with 50 μl of 10% TFA.

b) Step 2: Purification of the Reduced and Alkylated Peptides

The pyridylethylated peptides were purified from the reaction medium by reversed phase chromatography using a narrow bore C₁₈ column (DeltaPak HPIC_(1B), 2×150 mm, Waters™). Elution was performed by means of a linear gradient of acetonitrile in acidified water from 2 to 60% in 90 minutes with a flow rate of 0.2 ml/min. This separation was performed under controlled temperature on a biocompatible HPLC system (all PEEK Waters, Waters model 626) linked to a variable absorbance detector (Waters 486). The molecules eluted from the column were detected by their absorbance at 225 nm.

c) Step 3: Determination of the Number of Cysteine Residues by Mass Spectrometry

Mass measurement of the pyridylethylated peptides was performed by a MALDI-TOF mass spectrometer according to the protocol presented in example 2.5.1. This fraction contained two molecules of molecular mass in MH⁺ at 5120.69 and 5141.54 (FIG. 7B). The difference in molecular mass measured before and after reduction for the two molecules corresponded to the addition of six 4-vinyl pyridine residues (6×106 Da). This confirms the presence of six cysteine residues in the molecule at 4482.84 (m/z) and in that of 4501.67 (m/z) and their implication in the formation of three intramolecular disulfide bridges.

2.5.3 Determination of the Primary Sequences of the Spheniscins

a) Step 1: Sequencing by Edman's Degradation

The automatic sequencing by Edman's degradation of the S-pyridylethylated peptides was performed on an ABI473A sequencer (Applied Biosystems Inc.). Two primary sequences of 38 amino acids, differing only by an amino acid in position 14 (histidine versus arginine), were obtained with an ambiguity regarding the amino acids in positions 31 and 37. The two peptides were treated with chymotrypsin to resolve this ambiguity.

b) Step 2: Digestion with Chymotrypsin and Analysis of the Chymotrypsin Fragments by Mass Spectrometry

The fraction (4 μl) containing the S-pyridylethylated peptides was put in solution in 20 μl of Tris mM buffer at pH 7.8 containing 10 mM of CaCl₂ in the presence of chymotrypsin at the ratio of 1/20 (enzyme, peptides, weight/weight). Aliquot fractions (0.5 μl) were analyzed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry after 30 minutes and 55 minutes of incubation at 30° C. The samples were analyzed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry according to the protocol described in example 1.5.1. Among the chymotrypsin fragments observed after 55 minutes, one of the fragments with a molecular mass measured at 1261.05 (m/z) resolved the ambiguities seen after the sequencing by Edman's degradation. Identical C-terminals for both peptides.

The totality of the techniques employed thereby made it possible to obtain the complete structures of spheniscin-1 and spheniscin-2.

The primary sequence of spheniscin-1 is the following:

-   -   SFGLCRLRRGFCAHGRCRFPSIPIGRCSRFVQCCRRVW (SEQ ID No. 9)     -   Calculated molecular mass: 4483.88 MH⁺     -   Measured molecular mass: 4482.84 MH⁺

The primary sequence of spheniscin-2 is the following:

-   -   SFGLCRLRRGFCARGRCRFPSIPIGRCSRFVQCCRRVW (SEQ ID No. 10)     -   Calculated molecular mass: 4502.42 MH⁺     -   Measured molecular mass: 4501.67 MH⁺

Analysis of the protein and nucleotide databases (FASTA Genome, NCBI-TBLASTN) enabled demonstration that the spheniscins belonging to the family of β-defensins, antimicrobial peptides widely distributed in the animal world. A detailed comparison of the spheniscin sequences was performed with the sequences of the known β-defensins found in the epithelia of vertebrates, specifically in the chicken (Gallus gallus) and the guinea-fowl (Meleagris gallopavo). The homologies observed (FIG. 8) clearly show that the spheniscins, isolated from the stomach contents of king penguins, are clearly produced and secreted by the bird and do not stem from the food itself.

EXAMPLE 3 Evolution of the Spheniscins in the Stomach Contents Over the Course of the Incubation Fast in King Penguins

3.1 Detection of the Spheniscins in the Stomach Contents by MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry

The analyses were performed for each stomach content sample on the fractions stemming from the first purification step (cf. example 2.3, step 1). The analysis procedure by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry was that described in example 2.5.1.

All of the fractions originating from the first purification step stemming from the same individual in a given fasting stage and containing spheniscin-1 and/or spheniscin-2 were grouped together. The spheniscins were purified by successive chromatographies on suitable reversed phase columns using suitable acetonitrile gradients according to the model described above in example 2.3.

The purification steps were performed under controlled temperature on a biocompatible HPLC system (all PEEK Waters, Waters model 626) linked to a variable absorbance detector (Waters 486). The molecules eluted from the column were detected by their absorbance at 225 nm and the presence of spheniscin-1 and spehniscin-2 was confirmed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry.

3.2 Quantification and Evolution of the Spheniscins in the Stomach Contents Over the Course of the Incubation Fast in the King Penguin

a) Step 1: Analysis by Zone Capillary Electrophoresis

The first step enabling quantification of the spheniscins consisted of performing a zone capillary electrophoresis on a model 270 A-HT (Applied Biosystems Inc.). Four nl of each pool of fractions (12 μl) containing spheniscin (determined by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry) were injected under assistance by the vacuum in a silica capillary (72 cm×50 μm). The analysis was performed in a citrate 20 mM buffer at pH 2.5. The electrophoresis was performed at 20 kV from the anode to the cathode for 20 minutes at 30° C. The migration was recorded at 200 nm. For each sample, the surface of the peak corresponding to spheniscin-1 and spheniscin-2 was determined.

b) Step 2: Quantification

So as to be able to implement quantification, the area of the peak obtained by capillary electrophoresis was compared to that of a calibrated solution of spheniscins. This solution corresponds to the sample analyzed by Edman's degradation. The precise quantity of spheniscins sequenced was determined by measurement of the repetitive yield and the initial yield obtained during the sequencing by Edman's degradation.

The quantities observed were then brought to the concentrations present in the initial sample of the stomach content. The data obtained clearly showed a notable fluctuation in the content of spheniscins in the stomach contents between the two treated groups: the “preservation” and “digestion” groups (FIG. 6). Moreover, in the “preservation” group, a clear increase in the spheniscin levels was seen between the beginning and the end of the fast.

EXAMPLE 4 Synthetic Form of Spheniscin-2, its Antimicrobial Activity and Study of the Effect of the pH Value on its Functionality

4.1 Results

We evaluated the antimicrobial properties as well as the secondary structure (three-dimensional, 3D) of the peptides (spheniscins). A synthetic peptide of composition and structure identical to one of the variants of the peptides of the invention, i.e., spheniscin-2, was produced chemically. Based on the synthetic spheniscin-2, the following were studied:

-   -   the spectrum of activity of spheniscin-2 on a large range of         microorganisms including strains that are pathogenic for humans.         Strains of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, yeasts and         filamentous fungi were used.     -   the activity of spheniscin-2 as a function of the pH of the         medium. In fact, in the case of the preservation of the         alimentary bolus in the king penguin, it has been shown that the         pH value varies between 4 and 6 (Thouzeau et al., 2003). The         test was conducted in vitro to determine whether such a pH value         could have an impact on the activity of spheniscin in vivo. This         study was essential in the context of the potential use of these         molecules for the preservation of foodstuffs or the fight         against microbial infections in the gastrointestinal         environment.

Five major results emerged from these two studies:

-   -   Spheniscin-2 strongly affects the growth of a large number of         Gram-negative strains of bacteria (Table 1). This effect is         principally of the bactericidal type (lysis of the bacterial         cells);     -   Spheniscin-2 is also active against a large variety of         Gram-negative strains of bacteria (Table 1). In contrast to that         seen with the Gram-positive strains, this effect is primarily of         the bacteriostatic type (termination of bacterial         multiplication);     -   Spheniscin-2 possesses antifungal activity both against yeasts         as well as against filamentous fungi (Table 1). This effect can         be fungicidal (lysis of the spores) but can also affect the         reproductive phase of the fungi by blocking sporulation as we         could see on the human pathogen fungus Aspergillus fumigatus.         This latter effect is shown in FIG. 9:         -   The existence of different modes of action of spheniscin             depending on the microorganism strains affected by this             peptide;         -   Spheniscin-2 is functional in the range of pH values             observed in the stomach contents of the king penguin, i.e.,             from pH 4 to pH 6 (Table 2).

In conclusion, the demonstration of the broad spectrum of activity of spheniscin-2 affecting the growth of bacteria and fungi that are pathogens of plants and humans, and the maintenance of the functionality of this peptide at the pH values observed in vivo in the stomach are supplementary evidence in favor of the implication of substances with antimicrobial activity in the phenomenon of the preservation of the alimentary bolus during incubation fasting of the king penguin. These biological properties also are in favor of the use of these molecules for the antimicrobial fight in an environment in which the pH would be moderately acid.

The paragraphs below provide supplementary characteristics pertaining to the synthetic form of spheniscin-2, its spectrum of antimicrobial activity and the study of the effect of the pH value on its functionality.

4.2 Production of the Synthetic Form of Spheniscin-2

The study of the properties of spheniscin-2 required the availability of an adequate amount of peptide which was difficult to obtain from the king penguin stomach content extract. A synthetic from of spheniscin-2 was obtained from Laboratoire ALTERGEN (Schiltigheim, France). The spheniscin-2 was produced by chemical synthesis according to a procedure known in the art. After renaturation of the molecule under suitable conditions known in the art, the purity of the molecule and its identity with the native molecule were checked using the procedure described below:

-   -   a) Treatment of the crude synthesized product: The powder         constituting the crude synthesized product was washed with         reliquats of trifluoroacetic acid present with multiple         successive washings using a 50% ACN solution; washings         interspersed with a step of drying under vacuum (Speed-Vac,         Savant) followed by a lyophilization step.     -   b) Verification of the molecular mass and the organization of         the disulfide bridges: The identity of the synthetic product         washed in this manner was verified and compared with that of the         native molecule obtained from the stomach content. The molecular         mass as well as the purity of the synthetic spheniscin were         verified by mass spectrometry according to the time of flight         measurement after matrix assisted laser ionization desorption         (MALDI-TOF technique, see example 2.5.1 for the details of the         technique). The arrangement of the disulfide bridges         characteristic of the molecule (Cys1-Cys5, Cys2-Cys4, Cys3-Cys6)         was verified by enzymatic cleaving with trypsin (Boehringer         Mannheim, Germany) followed by a mass imprint by MALDI-TOF of         the fragments stemming from this digestion.

The totality of the results obtained showed that the synthetic spheniscin was the same as the natural spheniscin-2 molecule both in terms of its primary structure as well as its arrangement of the disulfide bridges:

-   -   Natural spheniscin-2 (Sphe-2N) and synthetic spheniscin-2         (Sphe-2S):         -   Calculated molecular mass: 4502.42 MH⁺         -   Measured molecular mass (Sphe-2N): 4501.67 MH⁺         -   Measured molecular mass (Sphe-2S): 4502.71 MH⁺         -   Pairing of the cysteines: Cys1-Cys5, Cys2-Cys4, Cys3-Cys6

Due to this strict identity, the synthetic spheniscin was used to carry out the studies of the biological properties of this molecule and study of the three-dimensional structure of this peptide.

4.3 Determination of the Spectrum of Activity of Spheniscin-2

The antimicrobial activities expressed in minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of spheniscin 2 (concentrations comprised between 0.2 μM and 100 μM) were determined against bacteria, yeasts and fungi using a growth inhibition test in liquid medium in microtitration plates (for the detailed protocol see example 2.4 as well as Hétru and Bulet, 1997).

The bactericidal or bacteriostatic effect of the peptide was determined by spreading on Petri dishes and counting the colonies present after 24 h of incubation.

The strains of microorganisms used were the same as certain ones previously described in the literature (Lowenberger et al., 1995, 1999) to which were added the following strains (donated by researchers): Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778 (Collection of the Pasteur Institute, Paris), Alcaligenes faecalis, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, S. haemolyticus and Nocardia asteroides (Professors Monteil and Piémont, Bacteriology Institute, University of Strasbourg, France), Escherichia coli SBS 363 (Dr. Boquet, Center of Nuclear Studies, Saclay, France), Vibrio metshnikovii and V. anguillarum (Dr. Bachère, IFREMER, Montpellier, France), Candida albicans IHEM 8060 (EntoMed, Strasbourg, France) and C. tropicalis (Dr. Koenig, Hôpital Civil, Strasbourg, France).

The control peptide MSI-94 was donated by Dr. M. A. Zasloff (Magainin Scientific Institute, Plymouth Meeting, Philadelphia) and the thanatin peptide was donated by Dr. Bulet (CNRS, UPR 9022, Strasbourg).

Table 1 below contains the spectra of activity of synthetic spheniscin-2 and two control peptides. The minimal growth inhibitory concentration (MIC) corresponds to the interval [a]-[b] in which [a] is the strongest concentration tested for which the microorganism grows and [b] is the weakest concentration tested starting at which there is 100% inhibition of growth of the microorganism (Casteels and Tempst, 1994). The control peptides were MSI-94 (a peptide of the mangainin family stemming from the skin of the batrachian Xenopus laevis and presenting a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity; Maloy and Kari, 1995) for testing against the bacteria and yeasts; and thanatin (an antifungal peptide stemming from the insect Podisus maculiventris; Fehlbaum et al., 1996) for testing against the filamentous fungi. ND indicates that the activity of the peptide was not detected at the concentrations tested, i.e., up to the maximal concentration of 100 μM. TABLE 1 Antimicrobial activity of synthetic spheniscin-2 and control peptides. Ranges of concentrations tested: spheniscin-2 = 0.2 μM-100 μM; MSI-94 (control for bacteria and yeasts) = 0.2 μM-10 μm; thanatin (control for the fungi) = 0.4 μM-41.1 μM. MIC (μM) Bactericidal Control effect of Microorganism Spheniscin antibiotic spheniscin-2 Gram-positive bacteria Micrococcus luteus 1.5-3  0.63-1.25 Yes Bacillus subtilis   0.8-1.5 1.25-2.5 Yes B. cereus ATCC 11778   3-6 1.25-2.5 Yes B. megaterium   0.4-0.8  0.31-0.63 Yes Staphylococcus aureus 1.5-3 1.25-2.5 Yes S. saprophyticus 1.5-3  0.63-1.25 No S. haemolyticus 1.5-3  0.63-1.25 Yes Nocardia asteroides   0.8-1.5 1.25-2.5 Yes Aerococcus viridans   0.4-0.8 1.25-2.5 — Listeria monocytogenes   6-12 2.5-5  — Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli SBS 363   0.8-1.5 1.25-2.5 No E. coli 1106 1.5-3 1.25-2.5 Yes Enterobacter cloacae ND  5-10 — Salmonella typhimurium   6-12  2.5-5.0 No Klebsiella pneumoniae   50-100  2.5-5.0 No Pseudomonas aeruginosa   6-12  0.63-1.25 No ATCC 82118 Alcaligenes faecalis ND 2.5-5  — Vibrio metshnikovii NCTC   25-50 — Yes 8483 V. anguillarum ATCC 19264   25-50 — No Yeasts Candida glabrata >100 ND C. albicans IHEM 8060   50-100  2.5-5.0 C. tropicalis 1.5-3  2.5-5.0 Fungi Neurospora crassa   3-6  2.0-4.0 Aspergillus fumigatus   3-6 close to 20 ND: activity not detected in the range of concentrations tested. 4.4 Study of the Functionality of Spheniscin-2 at Different pH Values

The activity of the spheniscin was tested at pH values between 4.2 and 6.1 to determine whether the moderate acidity of the well preserved stomach content (pH 4-6; Thouzeau et al., 2003) could modify the efficacy of the spheniscin in vivo.

Strains of microorganisms capable of growing at such pH values were selected in advance: these were Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli 1106 (Gram-negative bacteria). The tests of antimicrobial activity were performed in liquid medium in microtitration plates (for the detailed protocol see example 2.4 as well as Hétru and Bulet, 1997). The pH of the liquid medium used was adjusted with hydrochloric acid for each test.

Table 2 below shows the effect of the pH value of the medium on the antimicrobial activity of synthetic spheniscin-2. Two strains of Gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli 1106) capable of growing in the range of pH values to be tested were selected. The range of pH values tested corresponded to the pH variations observed in the well preserved stomach content of the incubating king penguin (Thouzeau et al., 2003). TABLE 2 Effect of the pH on the activity of synthetic spheniscin-2. Microorganism pH MIC (μM) after 48 h of incubation Escherichia coli 1106 4.2 6-12 5.2 25-50  6.1 6-12 7.2 1.5-3   Pseudomonas aeruginosa 4.2 >100 5.2 ND 6.1 ND 7.2 6-12 ND: activity not detected in the range of concentrations tested

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES

The subject matter of the following publications is incorporated herein be reference:

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1. A peptide comprising one or more intramolecular bonds corresponding to formula (I): Xaa-Ca1-Xab-Ca2-Xac-Ca3-Xad-Ca4-Xae-Ca5-Ca6-Xaf   (I), wherein Xaa represents an —NH₂ group, a peptide residue of 1 to 16 amino acids or -Xaa1-Xaa2-in which Xaa1 represents an —NH₂ group or a peptide residue of 1 to 13 amino acids and Xaa2 represents a peptide residue of 3 amino acids selected from the group consisting of hydrophobic amino acids and apolar amino acids; Xab represents a peptide residue of 1 to 6 amino acids or -Xab1-Xab2-Xab3-Xab4-Xab5- in which Xab1, Xab2, Xab4 and Xab5, when present and which can be identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, negatively charged polar amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, and Xab3 represents -Xab3.l-Xab3.2- in which those of the Xab3.1 and Xab.3.2, when present and which can be identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, negatively charged polar amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and hydrophobic or apolar amino acids; Xac represents a peptide residue comprising 1 to 4 amino acids or -Xac1-Xac2-Xac3-Xac4- in which those of the Xac1, Xac2, Xac3 and Xac4, when present and which can be identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and large noncharged polar amino acids; Xad represents a peptide residue comprising 1 to 9 amino acids or -Xad1-Xad2-Xad3-Xad4-Xad5-Xad6-Xad7-Xad8-Xad9- in which those of Xad1, Xad2, Xad3, Xad4, Xad5, Xad6, Xad7, Xad8 and Xad9. when present and which can be identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and negatively charged polar amino acids; Xae represents a peptide residue comprising 1 to 6 amino acids or -Xae1-Xae2-Xae3-Xae4-Xae5- in which those of Xae1, Xae2, Xae3, Xae4, Xae5, when present and which can be identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and negatively charged polar amino acids; Xaf represents —OH, —CONH_(2,) a peptide residue of 1 to 14 amino acids or -Xaf1-Xaf2-Xaf3-Xaf4- in which those of the Xaf1, Xaf2, Xaf3 and Xaf4, when present and which can be identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and negatively charged polar amino acids; and Ca1, Ca2, Ca3, Ca4, Ca5 and Ca6, which can be identical or different, represent amino acids at least one of which is bonded to any one of Ca1, Ca2, Ca3, Ca4, Ca5.
 2. The peptide according to claim 1, wherein Xaa is—Xaa1-Xaa2-.
 3. The peptide according to claim 1, wherein Xab is—Xab1-Xab2-Xab3-Xab4-Xab5-.
 4. The peptide according to claim 1, wherein Xab3 is—Xab3.1-Xab3.2-.
 5. The peptide according to claim 1, wherein Xac is—Xac1-Xac2-Xac3-Xac4-.
 6. The peptide according to claim 1, wherein Xad is—Xad1-Xad2-Xad3-Xad4-Xad5-Xad6-Xad7-Xad8-Xad9-.
 7. The peptide according to claim 1, wherein Xae is—Xae1-Xae2-Xae3-Xae4-Xae5-.
 8. The peptide according to claim 1, wherein Xaf is—-Xaf1-Xaf2-Xaf3-Xaf4-.
 9. The peptide according to claim 1, wherein Ca1, Ca2, Ca3, Ca4, Ca5 and Ca6 are cysteines.
 10. The peptide according to claim 1, wherein: Xaa1 is a small noncharged polar amino acid; Xaa2 is Phe-Gly-Leu; Ca1 and Ca5 are linked by covalence; Xab1 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and large noncharged polar amino acids; Xab2 is selected from the group consisting of hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, basic amino acids and large noncharged polar amino acids; Xab3.2 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids and hydrophobic or apolar amino acids; Xab4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrophobic amino acids and apolar amino acids; Xab5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids, basic amino acids, negatively charged polar amino acids and small noncharged polar amino acids; Ca2 and Ca4 are linked by covalence; Xac1 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and large noncharged polar amino acids; Xac2 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and large noncharged polar amino acids; Xac3 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids and large noncharged polar amino acids; Xac4 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and small noncharged polar amino acids; Ca3 and Ca6 are linked by covalence; Xad1 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and large noncharged polar amino acids; Xad2 is selected from the group consisting of hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids and basic amino acids; Xad3 is selected from the group consisting of hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, basic amino acids and large noncharged polar amino acids; Xad4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids, basic amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and negatively charged polar amino acids; Xad5 is selected from the group consisting of hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, basic amino acids and negatively charged polar amino acids; Xad6 is selected from the group condisying of hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, basic amino acids and large noncharged polar amino acids; Xad7 is selected from the group consisting of hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and large noncharged polar amino acids; Xad8 is selected from the group consisting of hydrophobic or apolar amino acids; Xad9 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and small noncharged polar amino acids; Xae1 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and small noncharged polar amino acids; Xae2 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and small noncharged polar amino acids; Xae3 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids, small noncharged polar amino acids and negatively charged polar amino acids; Xae4 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and small noncharged polar amino acids; Xae5 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids, large noncharged polar amino acids and small noncharged polar amino acids; Xaf1 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids and hydrophobic or apolar amino acids; Xaf2 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and small noncharged polar amino acids; Xaf3 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids, hydrophobic or apolar amino acids and large noncharged polar amino acids; and Xaf4 is selected from the group consisting of basic amino acids and hydrophobic or apolar amino acids.
 11. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xaa1 is serine.
 12. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xab1 is arginine.
 13. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xab2 is leucine.
 14. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xab3.2 is arginine.
 15. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xab4 is glycine.
 16. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xab5 is phenylalanine.
 17. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xac1 is alanine.
 18. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xac2 is histidine.
 19. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xac3 is glycine.
 20. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xac4 is arginine.
 21. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xad1 is arginine.
 22. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xad2 is phenylalanine.
 23. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xad3 is proline.
 24. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xad4 is serine.
 25. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xad5 is isoleucine.
 26. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xad6 is proline.
 27. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xad7 is isoleucine.
 28. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xad8 is glycine.
 29. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xad9 is arginine.
 30. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xae1 is serine.
 31. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xae2 is arginine.
 32. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xae3 is phenylalanine.
 33. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xae4 is valine.
 34. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xae5 is glutamine.
 35. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xaf1 is arginine.
 36. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xaf2 is arginine.
 37. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xaf3 is valine.
 38. The peptide according to claim 10, wherein Xaf4 is tryptophan.
 39. The peptide according to claim 1, comprising a peptide of formula (II):

wherein Xaa, Ca1, Xab, Ca2, Xac, Ca3, Xad, Ca4, Xae, Ca5, Ca6 and Xaf have the same meanings as in formula (I) and having three disulfide bridges.
 40. The peptide according to claim 39, wherein: Xac is: Xac1-His-Xac3 or Xac1-Arg-Xac3 ; Xad is: Xad1-Pro-Xad3; Xae is: Xae1-Gln-Xae3; Xaf is: Xaf1-Val-Xaf3, wherein Xac, Xac1, Xac3, Xad, Xad1, Xad3, Xae, Xae1, Xae3, Xaf, Xaf1 and Xaf3 have the same meanings as in formula (I).
 41. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of an active agent comprising at least one peptide according to claim 1 and a carrier.
 42. A food processing composition comprising an effective amount of a therapeutically effective amount of an active agent comprising at least one peptide according to claim 1 and a carrier.
 43. An agricultural composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of an active agent comprising at least one peptide according to claim 1 and a carrier.
 44. A polynucleotide that codes for a peptide according to claim
 1. 45. A nucleic acid molecule as a vector comprising at least one polynucleotide according to claim
 40. 46. A host comprising an animal cell, a plant cell or a prokaryote and a nucleic acid molecule according to claim
 45. 47. A method of treating bacterial and/or fungal infections in mammals comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition according to claim 41 to the mammal.
 48. A method of preventing bacterial and/or fungal infections in mammals comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of the composition according to claim 41 to the mammal.
 49. A method of treating bacterial and/or fungal infections in plants comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition according to claim 41 to a plant.
 50. A method of preventing bacterial and/or fungal infections in plants comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition according to claim 41 to a plant. 